INFLUENCE OF PERSONAL GROWTH INITIATIVE AND PUBLIC SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS ON PERCEIVED STIGMATIZATION AMONG DRUG USERS
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INFLUENCE OF
PERSONAL GROWTH INITIATIVE AND PUBLIC SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS ON PERCEIVED
STIGMATIZATION AMONG DRUG USERS
ABSTRACT
The study
examined the influence of personal growth initiative and public
self-consciousness on perceived stigmatization among drug users in Uyo
Metropolis. Two hundred and thirty-four (234) participants (171 males and 63
females) were selected from major bunks in Uyo Metropolis. These participants
were selected using purposive sampling technique. Perceived Stigmatization
Scale for drug users (King, Dinos, Shaw, Watson, Stevens, Passetti, Weich &
Mar, 2007), Personal Growth Initiative Scale (Robitschek, 1999), and Public
Self-Consciousness Scale (Scheier & Carver, 1985) were the instruments used
in this study for data collected. The study utilized a 2 x 2 factorial design.
A 2 way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for unequal sample size was employed for
data analysis. Results revealed that
personal growth initiative exerted an influence on perceived stigmatization
among drug users in Uyo metropolis [F (1,230) = 11.94, P.<.05]. Results also
revealed that public self-consciousness also exerted a significant influence on
perceived stigmatization among drug users in Uyo metropolis [F(1,230) = 4.13,
P<. 05]. Results further revealed that
personal growth initiative and public self-consciousness did not jointly
influence perceived stigmatization among drug users in Uyo metropolis [F
(1,230) = .40 P>.05]. Recommendations, implication of the study and
conclusion were made. Suggestions for further study as well as limitations of
the study were also provided.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the study
Stigma is a
major challenge for those who have an addiction to drugs or alcohol. Stigmas
are imposed by society, communities, friends and family members and can cause
major discrimination and hurt (Corrigan, Kuwabara & O’ Shaughnessy, 2009).
For people who use drugs, or are recovering from problematic drug use, stigma
can be a barrier to a wide range of opportunities and rights. People who are
stigmatized for their drug involvement face difficulties enduring social
rejection, labeling, stereotyping and discrimination, even in the absence of
any negative consequences associated with their drug use. This manifests in a
variety of ways, including denial of employment or housing. People with
substance misuse issues are less likely to be offered help than people with a
mental illness or physical disability. There is an extensive body of literature
documenting the stigma associated with alcohol and other drug problems (Luoma
& Twohig, 2007). No physical or psychiatric condition is more associated
with social disapproval and discrimination than substance use (Corrigan,
Kuwabara & O’ Shaughnessy, 2009).
Even among
people who use drugs, stigma toward other people who use drugs can be common.
People who use a socially acceptable, legal drug, such as alcohol, may have
negative prejudices against people who use illegal drugs, such as marijuana.
People who use illegal so-called ‘soft drugs’ such as marijuana may have
negative prejudices against people who use illegal powdered or ‘hard’ drugs,
such as cocaine. And people who inhale or snort their drug of choice may have
prejudice against people who inject a drug (McLaughlin & Long, 1996).
Stigma is a
Greek word that in its origins referred to a type of marking or tattoo that was
cut or burned into the skin of criminals, slaves, or traitors in order to
visibly identify them as blemished or morally polluted persons. These
individuals were to be avoided particularly in public places (O'Driscoll,
Heary, Hennessy & McKeague, 2012). Stigma is the experience of being
“deeply discredited” or marked due to one’s “undesired differentness.” To be
stigmatized is to be held in contempt, shunned or rendered socially invisible
because of a socially disapproved status (Smith, 2012). According to National
Agency on Drug Control (2011), when a person is not able to meet expectations
because their behaviour or attributes are undesirable or unacceptable, then
stigma disqualifies a person from social acceptance. O’Kelly (2003) suggests
that stigma is an undesirable attribute that is incongruous with our stereotype
of what a given individual should be. It is a use of negative labels and is
about disrespect. It is not just a matter of using the wrong word but labels that
person who has the substance use disorder.
Stigmas can occur in many different
forms. The most common deal with culture, obessity, gender, race, illness,
behaviour and disease. Many people, who have been stigmatized, feel as though
they are transforming from a whole person to a tainted one (O’Kelly (2003).
They feel different and devalued by others. This can happen in the workplace,
educational settings, health care, the criminal justice system and even in
their own family. For example, the parents of overweight women are less likely
to pay for their daughters' college education than are the parents of
average-weight women. Furthermore, persons with mental health problems
especially those who are substance induced may be abandoned by family members
to avoid embarrassment from members of the society.
Stigma may
also be described as a label that associates a person to a set of unwanted
characteristics that form a stereotype (Levin & Laar, 2004). Once people
identify and label our differences, others will assume that is just how things
are and the person will remain stigmatized until the stigmatizing attribute is
undetected. A considerable amount of generalization is required to create
groups, meaning that someone is put in a general group regardless of how well
that person actually fit into that group (Louise & Eilis, 2014). However,
the attributes that society selects differ according to time and place. What is
considered out of place in one society could be the norm in another. When
society categorizes individuals into certain groups the labeled person is
subjected to status loss and discrimination (Williams, Neighbors & Jackson,
2003). Society will start to form expectations about those groups once the
cultural stereotype is secured.
Stigma may
affect the behavior of those who are stigmatized. Those who are stereotyped
often start to act in ways that their stigmatizers expect of them. For example,
drug users may form cliques to encourage one another and as a result continue
in the consumption of drugs. It not only changes their behavior, but it also shapes
their emotions and beliefs (Williams, Neighbors & Jackson, 2003). Members
of stigmatized groups also face prejudice that causes depression (i.e.
deprejudice) (Louise & Eilis, 2014). These stigmas put a person's social
identity in threatening situations, like low self-esteem.
There are
different types of stigmas that are brought to mind when thinking about drugs
or alcohol users. The majority of these stigmas make negative assumptions about
lifestyles that include drugs and alcohol. Some of the stigmas people hold
about drug users are: people who abuse substances are typically deviants and
don’t engage in society like the rest of the population (O'Driscoll, Heary,
Hennessy & McKeague, 2012). They embody different values to mainstream
society: skirting the edges, unemployed, victims of bad upbringings, high
school drop outs and prostitutes. They take drugs in dark, dirty alleyways or
squats, rob innocent people, go on binges and engage in high risk
behaviors. The reality of substance
abusers is that the majority are just like everyone else. They are parents,
children, friends, workmates, sisters and brothers. They hold down jobs, have
friends, go to social functions and enjoy their weekends. Some fail to manage
their addiction and do become entrenched in a lifestyle that the stereotypes
embody, but many do not. An addiction does not discriminate between rich and
poor, young or old. Medical workers, law enforcement, insurance companies and
employers may tap into their own stereotypes if they are faced with an addict
(Link & Phelan, 2001). An employer may believe that persons suffering from
alcoholism are untrustworthy and fire them from their role. A police officer
may think that because someone is a heroin addict the person will be involved
in a theft. Most people who have a substance abuse problem are able to exist in
society without causing problems for others (Hughey, 2012). Substance abusers
will deny their problem and hide it from others for fear of being
discriminated. They will feel the shame associated with a stereotype and be
weakened by the constant negative connotations of addiction (Campbell &
Deacon, 2006). They may also struggle with their problem for too long without
getting help until the consequences are too severe.
Several
factors have been reported to influence perceived stigmatization of drug users
but this study will focus on personal growth initiative and public
self-consciousness. Personal growth initiative is one of the interesting topics
for the developmental psychologists especially from adolescent’s perspective.
Robitschek (1999) defined personal growth initiative as an active and
intentional involvement in the self-change process. Luoma and Twohig (2007)
defined personal growth initiative as a metacognitive construct that describes
an orientation towards actively and purposefully engaging in the growth seeking
process. Luoma and Twohig (2007) assert that personal growth initiative
contains cognitive components (e.g. motivation to change, knowledge of the
change process, and efficacy related to the change process) and behavioral
components (e.g. general goals relating to personal change and plans to attain
those goals). For example, an individual high in personal growth initiative
might critically evaluate past, current, and future experiences to both
determine potential areas for growth and monitor growth experiences.
Behaviorally, these individuals would likely seek out experiences deemed
important to personal growth. In contrast, an individual low in personal growth
initiative would not consider growth as a criterion for examining past,
current, and future experiences and therefore would not behaviorally seek out
intentional growth experiences. Given that personal growth initiative is a
broad goal orientation, it is likely that personal growth initiative would
affect the outcome and process of a variety of decisions. One of such decision
is how an individual chooses to cope with a stressful life event (Robitschek,
1999). An individual high in personal growth initiative might choose to cope or
“feel better” through striving to learn and change from the experience. This
goal of personal growth might require a critical evaluation and deeper
exploration of feelings and thoughts related to this event.
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